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The development of vegetation in Arctic glacier forelands has been described as unidirectional, non-replacement succession characterized by the gradual establishment of species typical for mature tundra with no species turnover. Our study focused on two early colonizers of High Arctic glacier forelands: Saxifraga oppositifolia (Saxifragaceae) and Braya purpurascens (Brassicaceae). While the first species is a common generalist also found in mature old growth tundra communities, the second specializes on disturbed substrate. The demographic population structures of the two study species were investigated along four glacier forelands in Petuniabukta, north Billefjorden, in central Spitsbergen, Svalbard. Young plants of both species occurred exclusively on young substrate, implying that soil conditions are favourable for establishment only before soil crusts develop. We show that while S. oppositifolia persists from pioneer successional stages and is characterized by increased size and flowering, B. purpurascens specializes on disturbed young substrate and does not follow the typical unidirectional, non-replacement succession pattern. Plants at two of the forelands were examined for the presence of root-associated fungi. Fungal genus Olpidium (Fungus incertae sedis) was found along a whole successional gradient in one of the forelands.

Keywords: Colonizer; deglaciation; endophyte; High Arctic; Olpidium; succession.

(Published: 30 April 2014)

Citation: Polar Research 2014, 33, 20797, http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v33.20797

Generalist predation constitutes a driving force for the evolution of chemical defences. In the Antarctic benthos, asteroids and omnivore amphipods are keystone opportunistic predators. Sessile organisms are therefore expected to develop defensive mechanisms mainly against such consumers. However, the different habits characterizing each predator may promote variable responses in prey. Feeding-deterrence experiments were performed with the circumpolar asteroid macropredator Odontaster validus to evaluate the presence of defences within the apolar lipophilic fraction of Antarctic invertebrates and macroalgae. A total of 51% of the extracts were repellent, yielding a proportion of 17 defended species out of the 31 assessed. These results are compared with a previous study in which the same fractions were offered to the abundant circum-Antarctic amphipod Cheirimedon femoratus. Overall, less deterrence was reported towards asteroids (51%) than against amphipods (80.8%), principally in sponge and algal extracts. Generalist amphipods, which establish casual host–prey sedentary associations with biosubstrata (preferentially sponges and macroalgae), may exert more localized predation pressure than sea stars on certain sessile prey, which would partly explain these results. The nutritional quality of prey may interact with feeding deterrents, whose production is presumed to be metabolically expensive. Although optimal defence theory posits that chemical defences are managed and distributed as to guarantee protection at the lowest cost, we found that only a few organisms localized feeding deterrents towards most exposed and/or valuable body regions. Lipophilic defensive metabolites are broadly produced in Antarctic communities to deter opportunistic predators, although several species combine different defensive traits.

Keywords: Antarctic invertebrates; Antarctic algae; chemical ecology; sea star Odontaster validus; amphipod Cheirimedon femoratus; chemical defence.

(Published: 7 April 2014)

Citation: Polar Research 2014, 33, 21624, http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v33.21624

The introduction of non-native species to Antarctica in association with human activities is a major threat to indigenous biodiversity and the region's unique ecosystems, as has been well-demonstrated in other ecosystems globally. Existing legislation contained in the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty does not specifically make the eradication of non-native species mandatory, although it is implicit that human-assisted introductions should not take place. Furthermore, to date, eradications of non-native species in the Treaty area have been infrequent and slow to progress. In 2005 an additional Annex (VI) to the Protocol was agreed concerning “Liability arising from environmental emergencies.” This annex focusses on prevention of environmental emergencies, contingency planning and reclaiming costs incurred when responding to an environmental emergency caused by another operator within the Antarctic Treaty area. However, the types of environmental emergencies covered by the annex are not defined. In this paper we highlight potential difficulties with the application of Annex VI in the context of non-native species control and eradication, including, for example, whether a non-native species introduction would be classified as an “environmental emergency” and therefore be considered under the terms of the annex. Even if this were the case, we conclude that the slow pace of approval of the annex by Antarctic Treaty Parties may prevent it coming into force for many years and, once in force, in its current form it is unlikely to be useful for reclaiming costs associated with the eradication or management of a non-native species.

Keywords: Liability Annex; non-native species; Environmental Protocol; Antarctic Treaty area; eradication; environmental emergency

(Published: 12 May 2014)

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Citation: Polar Research 2014, 33, 22103, http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v33.22103

To describe the horizontal and vertical distribution of recent planktic foraminifera in Fram Strait (Arctic), plankton samples were collected in the early summer of 2011 using a MultiNet sampler (>63 µm) at 10 stations along a west–east transect at 78°50′N. Five depth intervals were sampled from the sea surface down to 500 m. Additionally, sediment surface samples from the same locations were analysed. The ratio between absolute abundances of planktic foraminifera in the open ocean, at the ice margin and in the ice-covered ocean was found to be approximately 2:4:1. The assemblage was dominated by the polar Neogloboquadrina pachyderma (sin.) and the subpolar Turborotalita quinqueloba, which accounted for 76 and 15% of all tests in the warm, saline Atlantic waters and 90 and 5% in the cold and fresh Polar waters, respectively. Both species had maximum absolute abundances between 0 and 100 m water depth, however, they apparently lived shallower under the ice cover than under ice-free conditions. This indicates that the depth habitat of planktic foraminifera in the study area is predominantly controlled by food availability and not by temperature. The distribution pattern obtained by plankton tows was clearly reflected on the sediment surface and we conclude that the assemblage on the sediment surface can be used as an indicator for modern planktic foraminiferal fauna.

Keywords: Planktic foraminifera; Fram Strait; Arctic Ocean; depth habitat; N. pachyderma (sin.); T. quinqueloba.

(Published: 27 May 2014)

To access the supplementary material for this article, please see Supplementary files in the column to the right (under Article Tools).

Citation: Polar Research 2014, 33, 22483, http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v33.22483

Low water availability is one of the principal stressors for terrestrial invertebrates in the polar regions, determining the survival of individuals, the success of species and the composition of communities. The Arctic and Antarctic dipterans Heleomyza borealis and Eretmoptera murphyi spend the majority of their biennial life cycles as larvae, and so are exposed to the full range of environmental conditions, including low water availability, over the annual cycle. In the current study, the desiccation resistance and desiccation tolerance of larvae were investigated, as well as their capacity for cross-tolerance to temperature stress. Larvae of H. borealis showed high levels of desiccation resistance, only losing 6.9% of their body water after 12 days at 98.2% relative humidity (RH). In contrast, larvae of E. murphyi lost 46.7% of their body water after 12 days at the same RH. Survival of E. murphyi larvae remained high in spite of this loss (>80% survival). Following exposure to 98.2% RH, larvae of E. murphyi showed enhanced survival at −18°C for 2 h. The supercooling point of larvae of both species was also lowered following prior treatment at 98.2% RH. Cross-tolerance to high temperatures (37 or 38.5°C) was not noted following desiccation in E. murphyi, and survival even fell at 37°C following a 12-day pre-treatment. The current study demonstrates two different strategies of responding to low water availability in the polar regions and indicates the potential for cross-tolerance, a capacity which is likely to be beneficial in the ever-changing polar climate.

Keywords: Acclimation; dipteran; supercooling point; temperature; cross-tolerance.

(Published: 22 May 2014)

Citation: Polar Research 2014, 33, 22963, http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v33.22963

The ecostratigraphic analysis of foraminiferal assemblages from Upper Pliensbachian to Lower Toarcian (Lower Jurassic) mudstones, siltstones and black shales from northern Siberia allows for a better understanding of the response to the benthic biotic crisis related to the Toarcian Oceanic Anoxic Event in a high latitude context. The assemblages were dominated by agglutinated taxa with extremely low diversity values and dominance of Trochammina. These features suggest that the foraminiferal assemblages were adapted to restricted conditions, where the main limiting factors were salinity and oxygen degree. The opportunist behaviour of Trochammina enabled this genus to survive and adapt to unfavourable conditions. Trochammina proliferated in relation to the sea-level fall and probable changes in salinity in the Arctic palaeobasin during the Margaritatus Chron and at the beginning of the Viligaensis Chron (Late Pliensbachian). Another Trochammina proliferation is associated with the initial development of the restricted oxygen conditions related to the Toarcian Oceanic Anoxic Event.

Keywords: r-strategists; colonization; anoxic event; ecostratigraphy; black shale.

(Published: 2 July 2014)

Citation: Polar Research 2014, 33, 21653, http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v33.21653

Sea ice and icebergs are the dominant transport agents for sand-sized material to the central Arctic Ocean. However, few studies have investigated concurrent changes in the silt-sized fraction of Arctic sediments. Here we present an analysis of the coarse fraction content and silt grain size composition from middle and late Quaternary sediments recovered from the Lomonosov Ridge, in the central Arctic Ocean. A significant shift in the grain size record occurs at the marine isotope stage (MIS) 6/7 boundary, where larger amplitude variability in the sand fraction is seen in glacial and stadial periods. Below the MIS6/7 boundary, variations in the coarse fraction content are less pronounced, but prominent changes in the silt size fraction appear to define glacial and interglacial periods. Throughout the record, the percent weight of sortable silt in the fine fraction (SS % wt_fines), sortable silt mean size, and coarse silt content all increase as the >63 µm % wt content increases. This is consistent with observations of grain size spectra obtained from modern sea-ice samples, and indicates a strong overprint from sea ice on the silt distribution. The mechanism by which this sea-ice signal is preserved in the sediments across glacial and interglacial periods remains unclear. We suggest that the coarsening of silt-sized material during glacial periods could be attributed to either the entrainment of larger size fractions during suspension/anchor ice formation when sea levels are lowered, or diminished input and advection of fine fraction material during glacial periods.

Keywords: Pleistocene; Lomonosov Ridge; grain size; sea ice.

Citation: Polar Research 2014, 33, 23672, http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v33.23672

Because of its harsh environmental conditions and remoteness, Antarctica is often considered to be at low risk of plant invasion. However, an increasing number of reports have shown the presence and spread of non-native plants in Antarctica; it is therefore important to study which factors control the invasion process in this ecosystem. Here, we assessed the role of different human activities on the presence and abundance of the invasive Poa annua. In addition, we performed a reciprocal transplant experiment in the field, and a manipulative experiment of germination with P. annua and the natives Colobanthus quitensis and Deschampsia antarctica, in order to unravel the effects of physical soil disturbance on the establishment and survival of P. annua. We found a positive correlation between abundance of P. annua and level of soil disturbance, and that survival of P. annua was 33% higher in sites with disturbed soil than non-disturbed. Finally, we found that disturbance conditions increased germination for P. annua, whereas for native species germination in experimentally disturbed soil was either unchanged or reduced compared to undisturbed soil. Our results indicate that human activities that modify abiotic soil characteristics could play an important role in the abundance of this invasive species. If the current patterns of human activities are maintained in Antarctica, the establishment success and spread of P. annua could increase, negatively affecting native flora.

Keywords: Alien species; Colobanthus quitensis; Deschampsia antarctica; human disturbance; Poa annua; tourists.

(Published: 23 June 2014)